Description of the science of astronomy. What is astronomy and what does it study? Astrometry. Celestial Mechanics

More than once, raising our eyes to the night sky, we wondered - what is in this endless space?


The universe is fraught with many secrets and mysteries, but there is a science called astronomy, which has been studying space for many years and trying to explain its origin. What kind of science is this? What do astronomers do and what exactly do they study?

What does the word "astronomy" mean?

The term “astronomy” appeared in Ancient Greece in the 3rd–2nd centuries BC, when such scientists as Pythagoras and Hipparchus shone in the scientific community. The concept is a combination of two ancient Greek words - ἀστήρ (star) and νόμος (law), that is, astronomy is the law of the stars.

This term should not be confused with another concept - astrology, which studies the effects of celestial bodies on the Earth and humans.

What is astronomy?

Astronomy is the science of the Universe that determines the location, structure and formation of celestial bodies. In modern times, it includes several sections:

— astrometry, which studies the location and movement of space objects;

- celestial mechanics - determining the mass and shape of stars, studying the laws of their movement under the influence of gravitational forces;


— theoretical astronomy, within which scientists develop analytical and computer models of celestial bodies and phenomena;

- astrophysics - the study of the chemical and physical properties of space objects.

Separate branches of science are aimed at studying the patterns of the spatial arrangement of stars and planets and considering the evolution of celestial bodies.

In the 20th century, a new section appeared in astronomy called archaeoastronomy, aimed at studying astronomical history and elucidating knowledge of the stars in ancient times.

What does astronomy study?

The subjects of astronomy are the Universe as a whole and all the objects in it - stars, planets, asteroids, comets, galaxies, constellations. Astronomers study interplanetary and interstellar matter, time, black holes, nebulae, and celestial coordinate systems.


In a word, under their close attention is everything related to space and its development, including astronomical instruments, symbols, etc.

When did astronomy appear?

Astronomy is one of the most ancient sciences on Earth. It is impossible to name the exact date of its appearance, but it is well known that people have been studying stars since at least the 6th–4th millennia BC.

Many astronomical tables left by the priests of Babylon, calendars of the Mayan tribes, Ancient Egypt and Ancient China have survived to this day. Ancient Greek scientists made a great contribution to the development of astronomy and the study of celestial bodies. Pythagoras was the first to suggest that our planet is spherical, and Aristarchus of Samos was the first to draw conclusions about its rotation around the Sun.

For a long time, astronomy was associated with astrology, but during the Renaissance it became a separate science. Thanks to the advent of telescopes, scientists were able to discover the Milky Way galaxy, and at the beginning of the 20th century they realized that the Universe consists of many galactic spaces.

The greatest achievement of modern times has been the emergence of the theory of the evolution of the Universe, according to which it expands over time.

What is amateur astronomy?

Amateur astronomy is a hobby in which people who are not associated with scientific and research centers observe space objects. It must be said that such entertainment makes a significant contribution to the overall development of astronomy.


Amateurs have made many interesting and quite important discoveries. In particular, in 1877, Russian observer Evgraf Bykhanov was the first to express modern views on the formation of the Solar System, and in 2009, Australian Anthony Wesley discovered traces of the fall of a cosmic body (presumably a comet) on the planet Jupiter.

In the structure of astronomical science, the following components can be distinguished:

1. Astrometry.
2. Celestial mechanics.
3. Theoretical astronomy.
4. Astrophysics.
5. Stellar astronomy.
6. Cosmochemistry.
7. Cosmogony.
8. Cosmology.

Sections dealing with the astronomical study of the course of celestial objects

Astrometry. This branch of astronomical science is responsible for the study of the kinematics and geometry of celestial objects.

Note 1

The main purpose of astrometry is to find with high accuracy the coordinates of celestial objects, as well as the vector values ​​of their velocities in a given period of time.

The characteristics of these parameters are specified by six astrometric quantities:

1. Direct equatorial ascension (the length of the equatorial celestial arc).
2. Direct equatorial declination (angular distance to the celestial equatorial plane).
3. Equatorial speed in right ascension.
4. Equatorial speed in direct declination.
5. Parallaxes (changes in the observed location of an object).
6. Radial (radial) velocities.

In the case of high-precision measurement of these quantities, it is possible to obtain additional information about the celestial body, namely:

1. About absolute luminosity.
2. About the mass and age of a celestial body.
3. About the location of a celestial body.
4. About the object class.
5. About the presence of satellites.

Astrometry provides information necessary to advance other fields of astronomy.

Celestial Mechanics. It is a field of astronomy that uses the rules of classical mechanics in the study and calculation of the movement of celestial objects, mainly related to the solar system, and the events interrelated with this movement.

Celestial mechanics is characterized by its submission to Newton's laws:

• Law of inertia. This law states that in a coordinate system moving with zero acceleration, in the absence of external influence, all objects remain at rest or have a rectilinear and uniform motion. External force is needed only to give the body movement, to slow it down or change the velocity vector. Under the influence of force, bodies are given acceleration - an indicator of the speed of change in velocity. If a celestial object experiences acceleration, therefore, an external influence is exerted on it. Since movement along a curved orbit always occurs with acceleration (normal, otherwise centripetal), the planets (in particular the Earth) are constantly exposed to the so-called gravitational force. The goal of celestial mechanics is to find the relationship between the gravitational force of gravity and the course of a celestial object.
• Law of force. Under the influence of a force applied to an object, it carries out accelerated movement (with greater force, greater acceleration). A force of the same magnitude imparts different accelerations to different bodies. The indicator of the inertia of an object is “mass”, which can be called the “amount of matter” - the more massive the body, the greater its inertia and, as a consequence, the less its acceleration. Consequently, acceleration is proportional to the force applied to the body and inversely proportional to its mass. At certain values ​​of acceleration and mass of an object, the force acting on it is easily found.
• Law of counteraction. According to this law, the interaction of bodies occurs with forces that are equal in magnitude, but have different directions. Consequently, if a system includes two bodies that exert a force of equal magnitude on one another, they acquire acceleration in inverse proportion to their masses. Hence, a point located on a line connecting objects, distant from them in inverse proportion to their masses, will receive motion with zero acceleration, despite the fact that each body has an accelerated motion. This point is called the “center of mass”; the rotation of double stars occurs around such a point.

Theoretical astronomy. The subject of study of this section of astronomy: relative motion in a system of two bodies based on the law of universal gravitation, without taking into account the influence of third-party objects on them, which usually affects it in a very weak form and can be ignored in primary calculations. In particular, in the solar system, all planets are affected by the gravitational forces of other planets, but since They are so small compared to solar gravity that sometimes they can be ignored. The main issue that theoretical astronomy solves is the determination of the components of the orbits of celestial objects based on long-term observations of them. The second task, which can be solved much more easily, is to compile, based on the studied orbital elements, a table of spatiotemporal coordinates of celestial objects observed from the Earth (ephemeris).

Figure 1. Astrometry. The scale of cosmic distances. Author24 - online exchange of student work

Astrophysics. The subjects of research in astrophysics are: the structure, features of the physical structure and chemical structure of celestial bodies. The subsections of astrophysics are: practical (observational) astrophysics and theoretical astrophysics.

Basic empirical techniques of astrophysics:

1. Spectral analysis.
2. Photo.
3. Photometry.

Note 2

Theoretical astrophysics operates with both analytical tools and computer modeling in the study of various astrophysical events, the creation of their models and their theoretical justification.

Sections dealing with the astronomical study of the structure of celestial objects

In stellar astronomy, the laws of the placement of luminaries throughout the volume of the universe and their movement are studied.

Cosmochemistry deals with the study of the chemical structure of celestial objects, the laws of distribution and dislocation of chemical elements in the vastness of the Universe. She studies the processes of formation of cosmic matter.

One of the main issues addressed in cosmochemistry is knowledge, based on the structure and distribution of chemical elements, of the development processes of celestial objects, determination, based on their chemical nature, the history of their origin and development. Cosmochemistry pays its main attention to the distribution and dislocation of chemical elements in outer space. The chemical structure of the Sun, inner planets, meteorites and asteroids is likely to be virtually similar. Different periods of stellar development give rise to different chemical structures of the stars.

Figure 2. Observed spectra of the atmosphere of Earth and Mars. Author24 - online exchange of student work

Cosmogony is a field of astronomical science that studies the origin and evolution of celestial objects: stars and their clusters, nebulae, galactic systems, the solar system with the star itself, planetary systems with their satellites, meteorites, asteroids, comets.

Cosmogony is closely related to astrophysics. Since all space objects are born and evolve, their inherent dynamic processes have a relationship with their nature. Therefore, modern cosmogony makes comprehensive use of physical and chemical research methods.

Cosmology. This section of astronomy is responsible for the study of the general laws of the structure and evolution of the World.

In the 20th century The ancient science of astronomy has changed radically. This is due both to the emergence of its new theoretical basis - relativistic and quantum mechanics, and to the expansion of experimental research capabilities.

The general theory of relativity became one of the fundamental theories of cosmology, and the creation of quantum mechanics made it possible to study not only the mechanical motion of cosmic bodies, but also their physical and chemical characteristics. Stellar and extragalactic astronomy were developed. Astronomy has become all-wave, i.e. Astronomical observations are carried out at all wavelength ranges of electromagnetic radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma radiation). Its experimental capabilities have increased significantly with the advent of spacecraft that make it possible to conduct observations beyond the Earth's atmosphere, which absorbs radiation. All this led to a significant expansion of the observable region of the Universe and the discovery of a number of unusual (and often inexplicable) phenomena.

The main instrument for astronomical research is the telescope; other instruments, such as spectroscopic instruments, examine the radiation collected by the telescope. Nowadays, only a small part of astronomical work is carried out visually; research is mainly carried out using cameras and other instruments that record radiation. Radio telescopes have appeared that make it possible to study the radio emission of all kinds of objects in the Solar System, ours and other galaxies. Radio astronomy has enormously expanded knowledge about the Universe and led to the discovery of pulsars (neutron stars), quasars - extragalactic objects that are the most powerful known sources of radiation, made it possible to obtain information about the most distant regions of the Universe, and to detect isotropic “relict relic” radiation. All these are the most important discoveries of the twentieth century. Additional information is also provided by studies in the infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and - ranges, but these radiations are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, and the corresponding equipment is installed on satellites. To the outstanding discoveries of the twentieth century. This also includes the increase in wavelength discovered in 1929 by American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889 – 1953) corresponding to lines in the spectra of distant galaxies (“red shift”), which indicates the mutual removal of cosmic objects, i.e. about the expansion of the Universe.

Structure of the Universe

Solar system. The solar system is the cosmic home of humanity. The sun is the source of heat and light, the source of life on Earth. solar system- an interconnected set of stars - the Sun and many celestial bodies, which include nine planets, dozens of their satellites, hundreds of comets, thousands of asteroids, etc. All these various bodies are united into one stable system due to the force of gravitational attraction of the central body - the Sun.

The Sun is a plasma ball, consisting mainly of hydrogen and helium, in a state of differentiated rotation around its axis. The highest rotation speed in the equatorial plane is one revolution in 25.4 days. The source of solar energy is most likely the thermonuclear reactions of conversion of hydrogen into helium, occurring in the inner regions of the sun, where the temperature reaches 10 7 K. The temperature of the surface parts is 6000 K. The surface of the Sun is not smooth; granules are observed on it, caused by convective gas flows, “spots” and vortices appear and disappear. Explosive processes on the Sun, solar flares, and spots that periodically appear on its surface can serve as a measure of solar activity. Studies have shown that the cycle of maximum solar activity is regular and lasts approximately 11 years. Sunspots and flares on the Sun are the most noticeable manifestations of the Sun's magnetic activity. The connection between solar activity and processes on Earth was noted back in the 19th century, and now there is a huge amount of statistical material confirming the influence of solar activity on earth processes.

Developed in the 17th – 18th centuries. The theoretical basis of classical astronomy - classical mechanics - makes it possible to perfectly describe the movement of bodies of the Solar System connected by gravitational interaction, but does not answer the question of its origin. The planets of the solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, with the exception of the latter, move around the Sun in the same direction in a single plane along elliptical orbits. Planets, like their satellites, are not self-luminous bodies and are visible only because they are illuminated by the Sun. Since 1962, planets and their satellites have been studied not only from Earth, but also from space stations. Currently, extensive factual material has been accumulated about the peculiarities of the physical and chemical properties of the surface of the planets, their atmosphere, magnetic field, periods of rotation around the axis and the Sun. According to their physical characteristics, planets are divided into two groups: giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) and terrestrial planets (Mercury, Earth, Venus, Mars). The orbit of the planet most distant from the Sun - Pluto, whose size is smaller than the size of the Earth's satellite - the Moon, determines the size of the Solar system 1.2 10 13 m.

The solar system, being part of our galaxy, as a whole moves around its axis at a speed of 250 m/s, making a full revolution in 225 million years. According to modern ideas, the formation of the modern structure of the Solar System began with a shapeless gas-dust nebula (cloud). The solar system was formed approximately 5 billion years ago, and the Sun is a star of the second (or later) generation, because In addition to the usual hydrogen and helium for stars, it also contains heavy elements. The elemental composition of the Solar System is characteristic of the evolution of stars. Under the influence of gravitational forces, the cloud was compressed so that its densest part was in the center, where the bulk of the matter of the primary nebula was concentrated. The Sun arose there, in the depths of which thermonuclear reactions then began converting hydrogen into helium, which are the main source of energy from the sun. As the luminosity of the Sun increased, the gas cloud became less and less homogeneous, and condensations appeared in it - protoplanets. As the size and mass of protoplanets grew, their gravitational attraction increased, thus forming planets. The remaining celestial bodies are formed by the remnants of the material of the original nebula. So, approximately 4.5 - 5 billion years ago, the Solar system was finally formed in the form that has survived to us. In another 5 billion years, the Sun will likely run out of hydrogen and its structure will begin to change, leading to the gradual destruction of our Solar System.

Although modern ideas about the origin of the Solar System remain at the level of hypotheses, they are consistent with the ideas of the natural structural self-organization of the Universe under conditions of a highly nonequilibrium state.

Stars. Galaxies. The sun is a grain of sand in the world of stars. Star– the basic structural unit of the megaworld. A stationary star is a high-temperature plasma ball in a state of dynamic hydrostatic equilibrium. It is a finely balanced self-regulating system. Unlike other celestial bodies, such as planets, stars emit energy. The energy generated in them by nuclear processes leads to the appearance in the depths of stars of atoms of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and is a source of light. Stars are natural thermonuclear reactors in which the chemical evolution of matter occurs. They vary greatly in their physical properties and chemical composition. Different types of stars are observed, which correspond to different stages of their evolution. The evolutionary path of a star is determined by its mass, which varies mainly in the range from 0.1 to 10 solar masses. Stars are born, change and die. With a mass less than 1.4 solar, the star, having passed the stage red giant, first turns into white dwarf, then - in black dwarf, a cold, dead star, the size of which is comparable to the size of the Earth, and the mass of which is no more than solar. More massive stars at the final stage of evolution experience gravitational collapse– unlimited contraction of matter towards the center and can flare up as supernovae with the release of a significant part of the substance into the surrounding space in the form gas nebulae and transforming the remaining part into super-dense neutron star or black hole.

Stars form galaxies- giant gravitationally bound systems. Our Galaxy, which includes the Sun, is called the Milky Way and has 10 11 stars. Galaxies vary in size and shape. Based on their appearance, there are three types of galaxies: elliptical, spiral and irregular. The most common are spiral ones, including our Galaxy. It is a flattened disk with a diameter of ~ 10 5 light years with a bulge in the center from which spiral arms emanate. The galaxy rotates, and the speed of rotation depends on the distance to its center. The solar system is located approximately 30,000 light years from the center of the galactic disk.

From Earth, three galaxies can be observed with the naked eye - the Andromeda Nebula (from the Northern Hemisphere) and the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (from the Southern Hemisphere). In total, astronomers have discovered about one hundred million galaxies.

In addition to billions of stars, galaxies contain matter in the form of interstellar gas (hydrogen, helium) and dust. Dense gas and dust clouds hide the center of our Galaxy from us, so its structure can only be judged tentatively. In addition, in interstellar space there are flows of neutrinos and electrically charged particles accelerated to near-light speeds, as well as fields (gravitational, electromagnetic). It should be noted that, although the number of molecules of organic compounds in interstellar matter is small, their presence is fundamentally important. For example, the theory of the abiogenic origin of life on Earth is based on the participation in this process of molecules of organic substances, electromagnetic radiation and cosmic rays. Most often, organic molecules are found in places of maximum concentration of gas and dust substances.

At the end of the 70s of our century, astronomers discovered that galaxies in the Universe are not evenly distributed, but are concentrated near the boundaries of cells, within which there are almost no galaxies. Thus, on small scales, matter is distributed very unevenly, but in the large-scale structure of the Universe there are no special places or directions, so on large scales the Universe can be considered not only homogeneous, but also isotropic.

Metagalaxy. We briefly examined the structural levels of organization of matter in the megaworld. Is there an upper limit to the possibility of observing the Universe? Modern science answers this question in the affirmative. There is a fundamental limitation on the size of the observable part of the Universe, which is associated not with experimental capabilities, but with the finiteness of its age and the speed of light.

Cosmology based on Einstein's general theory of relativity and Hubble's law (see below) determines the age of the Universe T sun 15-20 billion years (10 18 s). No structural units existed before. Let us introduce the concept of a cosmological horizon, separating those objects from which light occurs over time t<Т вс can't reach us. Distance to it

Where With– speed of light in vacuum, T sun– age of the Universe.

The cosmological horizon forms the boundary of the fundamentally observable part of the Universe - Metagalaxies. If we accept that the age of the Universe is 10 18 s, then the size of the Metagalaxy is of the order of 10 26 m, and the cosmological horizon is continuously moving away from us at a speed of 3·10 8 m/s.

An important property of the Metagalaxy in its current state is its homogeneity and isotropy, i.e. the properties of matter and space are the same in all parts of the Metagalaxy and in all directions. One of the most important properties of the Metagalaxy is its constant expansion, the “scattering” of galaxies. American astronomer E. Hubble established a law according to which the farther galaxies are from us, the faster they are moving away.

An expanding Universe is a changing Universe. This means that it has its own history and evolution. The evolution of the Universe as a whole is being studied cosmology, which currently gives a description of both the first moments of its occurrence and possible paths of development in the future.

The vault of heaven, burning with glory,
Looks mysteriously from the depths,
And we float, a burning abyss
Surrounded on all sides.
F. Tyutchev

Lesson1/1

Subject: Subject of astronomy.

Equipment: F. Yu. Siegel “Astronomy in its development”, Theodolite, Telescope, posters “telescopes”, “Radio astronomy”, d/f. “What astronomy studies”, “The largest astronomical observatories”, film “Astronomy and worldview”, “astrophysical methods of observation”. Earth globe, transparencies: photographs of the Sun, Moon and planets, galaxies. CD- "Red Shift 5.1" or photographs and illustrations of astronomical objects from the multimedia disc "Multimedia Library for Astronomy". Show the Observer's Calendar for September (taken from the Astronet website), an example of an astronomical journal (electronic, for example Nebosvod). You can show an excerpt from the film Astronomy (Part 1, fr. 2 The most ancient science).

Intersubject communication: Rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction of light. Construction of images produced by a thin lens. Camera (physics, VII class). Electromagnetic waves and the speed of their propagation. Radio waves. Chemical action of light (physics, X class).

During the classes:

Introductory talk (2 min)

1. Textbook by E. P. Levitan; general notebook - 48 sheets; exams upon request.
2. Astronomy is a new discipline in the school course, although you are briefly familiar with some of the issues.
3. How to work with the textbook.

• work through (not read) a paragraph
• delve into the essence, understand each phenomenon and processes
• work through all the questions and tasks after the paragraph, briefly in your notebooks
• check your knowledge using the list of questions at the end of the topic
• View additional material on the Internet

Lecture (new material) (30 min) The beginning is a demonstration of a video clip from a CD (or my presentation).

Astronomy [Greek Astron (astron) - star, nomos (nomos) - law] - the science of the Universe, completing the natural and mathematical cycle of school disciplines. Astronomy studies the movement of celestial bodies (section “celestial mechanics”), their nature (section “astrophysics”), origin and development (section “cosmogony”) [ Astronomy is the science of the structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems =, that is, the science of nature]. Astronomy is the only science that received its patron muse - Urania.
Systems (space): - all bodies in the Universe form systems of varying complexity.

History of astronomy (you can use a fragment of the film Astronomy (part 1, fr. 2 The most ancient science))
Astronomy is one of the most fascinating and ancient sciences of nature - it explores not only the present, but also the distant past of the macrocosm around us, as well as to draw a scientific picture of the future of the Universe.
The need for astronomical knowledge was dictated by vital necessity:

Stages of development of astronomy
1st Ancient world(BC). Philosophy →astronomy →elements of mathematics (geometry).
Ancient Egypt, Ancient Assyria, Ancient Maya, Ancient China, Sumerians, Babylonia, Ancient Greece. Scientists who made significant contributions to the development of astronomy: THALES of Miletus(625-547, Ancient Greece), EVDOKS Knidsky(408- 355, Ancient Greece), ARISTOTLE(384-322, Macedonia, Ancient Greece), ARISTARCHUS of Samos(310-230, Alexandria, Egypt), ERATOSTHENES(276-194, Egypt), HIPPARCHUS of Rhodes(190-125, Ancient Greece).
II Pre-telescopic period. (AD to 1610). Decline of science and astronomy. The collapse of the Roman Empire, barbarian raids, the birth of Christianity. Rapid development of Arab science. Revival of science in Europe. Modern heliocentric system of world structure. Scientists who made significant contributions to the development of astronomy during this period: Claudius PTOLEMY (Claudius Ptolomeus)(87-165, Dr. Rome), BIRUNI, Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni(973-1048, modern Uzbekistan), Mirza Muhammad ibn Shahrukh ibn Timur (Taragay) ULUGBEK(1394 -1449, modern Uzbekistan), Nicholas COPERNIUS(1473-1543, Poland), Quiet(Tighe) BRAHE(1546-1601, Denmark).
III Telescopic before the advent of spectroscopy (1610-1814). The invention of the telescope and observations with its help. Laws of planetary motion. Discovery of the planet Uranus. The first theories of the formation of the solar system. Scientists who made significant contributions to the development of astronomy during this period: Galileo Galilei(1564-1642, Italy), Johann KEPLER(1571-1630, Germany), Jan GAVELIY (GAVELIUS) (1611-1687, Poland), Hans Christian HUYGENS(1629-1695, Netherlands), Giovanni Dominico (Jean Domenic) CASSINI>(1625-1712, Italy-France), Isaac Newton(1643-1727, England), Edmund Halley (HALLIE, 1656-1742, England), William (William) Wilhelm Friedrich HERSCHEL(1738-1822, England), Pierre Simon LAPLACE(1749-1827, France).
IV Spectroscopy. Before the photo. (1814-1900). Spectroscopic observations. The first determinations of the distance to the stars. Discovery of the planet Neptune. Scientists who made significant contributions to the development of astronomy during this period: Joseph von Fraunhofer(1787-1826, Germany), Vasily Yakovlevich (Friedrich Wilhelm Georg) STROVE(1793-1864, Germany-Russia), George Biddell Erie (AIRY, 1801-1892, England), Friedrich Wilhelm BESSEL(1784-1846, Germany), Johann Gottfried HALLE(1812-1910, Germany), William HEGGINS (Huggins, 1824-1910, England), Angelo SECCHI(1818-1878, Italy), Fedor Aleksandrovich BREDIKHIN(1831-1904, Russia), Edward Charles PICKERING(1846-1919, USA).
Vth Modern period (1900-present). Development of the use of photography and spectroscopic observations in astronomy. Solving the question of the source of energy of stars. Discovery of galaxies. The emergence and development of radio astronomy. Space research. See more details.

Connection with other objects.
PSS t 20 F. Engels - “First, astronomy, which, due to the seasons, is absolutely necessary for shepherding and agricultural work. Astronomy can only develop with the help of mathematics. Therefore, I had to do math. Further, at a certain stage in the development of agriculture in certain countries (raising water for irrigation in Egypt), and especially along with the emergence of cities, large buildings and the development of crafts, mechanics also developed. Soon it becomes necessary for shipping and military affairs. It is also transmitted to help mathematics and thus contributes to its development.”
Astronomy has played such a leading role in the history of science that many scientists consider “astronomy to be the most significant factor in the development from its origins - right up to Laplace, Lagrange and Gauss” - they drew tasks from it and created methods for solving these problems. Astronomy, mathematics and physics have never lost their relationship, which is reflected in the activities of many scientists.

		The interaction of astronomy and physics continues to influence the development of other sciences, technology, energy and various sectors of the national economy. An example is the creation and development of astronautics. Methods for confining plasma in a limited volume, the concept of “collisionless” plasma, MHD generators, quantum radiation amplifiers (masers), etc. are being developed.
	1 - heliobiology 2 - xenobiology 3 - space biology and medicine 4 - mathematical geography 5 - cosmochemistry A - spherical astronomy B - astrometry B - celestial mechanics G - astrophysics D - cosmology E - cosmogony F - cosmophysics	Astronomy and chemistry connect the issues of studying the origin and prevalence of chemical elements and their isotopes in space, the chemical evolution of the Universe. The science of cosmochemistry, which arose at the intersection of astronomy, physics and chemistry, is closely related to astrophysics, cosmogony and cosmology, studies the chemical composition and differentiated internal structure of cosmic bodies, the influence of cosmic phenomena and processes on the course of chemical reactions, the laws of abundance and distribution of chemical elements in the Universe, the combination and migration of atoms during the formation of matter in space, evolution of the isotopic composition of elements. Of great interest to chemists are studies of chemical processes that, due to their scale or complexity, are difficult or completely impossible to reproduce in terrestrial laboratories (matter in the interior of planets, the synthesis of complex chemical compounds in dark nebulae, etc.). Astronomy, geography and geophysics connects the study of the Earth as one of the planets of the solar system, its basic physical characteristics (shape, rotation, size, mass, etc.) and the influence of cosmic factors on the geography of the Earth: the structure and composition of the earth's interior and surface, relief and climate, periodic, seasonal and long-term, local and global changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere of the Earth - magnetic storms, tides, changes of seasons, drift of magnetic fields, warming and ice ages, etc., arising as a result of the influence of cosmic phenomena and processes (solar activity , rotation of the Moon around the Earth, rotation of the Earth around the Sun, etc.); as well as astronomical methods of orientation in space and determination of terrain coordinates that have not lost their significance. One of the new sciences was space geoscience - a set of instrumental studies of the Earth from space for the purposes of scientific and practical activities. Connection astronomy and biology determined by their evolutionary character. Astronomy studies the evolution of cosmic objects and their systems at all levels of organization of inanimate matter in the same way as biology studies the evolution of living matter. Astronomy and biology are connected by the problems of the emergence and existence of life and intelligence on Earth and in the Universe, problems of terrestrial and space ecology and the impact of cosmic processes and phenomena on the Earth's biosphere. Connection astronomy With history and social science, studying the development of the material world at a qualitatively higher level of organization of matter, is due to the influence of astronomical knowledge on the worldview of people and the development of science, technology, agriculture, economics and culture; the question of the influence of cosmic processes on the social development of mankind remains open. The beauty of the starry sky awakened thoughts about the greatness of the universe and inspired writers and poets. Astronomical observations carry a powerful emotional charge, demonstrate the power of the human mind and its ability to understand the world, cultivate a sense of beauty, and contribute to the development of scientific thinking. The connection between astronomy and the “science of sciences” - philosophy- is determined by the fact that astronomy as a science has not only a special, but also a universal, humanitarian aspect, and makes the greatest contribution to clarifying the place of man and humanity in the Universe, to the study of the relationship “man - the Universe”. In every cosmic phenomenon and process, manifestations of the basic, fundamental laws of nature are visible. On the basis of astronomical research, the principles of knowledge of matter and the Universe and the most important philosophical generalizations are formed. Astronomy influenced the development of all philosophical teachings. It is impossible to form a physical picture of the world that bypasses modern ideas about the Universe - it will inevitably lose its ideological significance.

Modern astronomy is a fundamental physical and mathematical science, the development of which is directly related to scientific and technical progress. To study and explain processes, the entire modern arsenal of various, newly emerged branches of mathematics and physics is used. There is also.

Main branches of astronomy:

Observations in astronomy.
Observations are the main source of information about celestial bodies, processes, phenomena occurring in the Universe, since it is impossible to touch them and conduct experiments with celestial bodies (the possibility of conducting experiments outside the Earth arose only thanks to astronautics). They also have the peculiarities that to study any phenomenon it is necessary:

• long periods of time and simultaneous observation of related objects (example: the evolution of stars)
• the need to indicate the position of celestial bodies in space (coordinates), since all the luminaries seem far from us (in ancient times the concept of the celestial sphere arose, which as a whole revolves around the Earth)

Example: Ancient Egypt, observing the star Sothis (Sirius), determined the beginning of the Nile flood, and established the length of the year at 4240 BC. in 365 days. For accurate observations, we needed devices.
1). It is known that Thales of Miletus (624-547, Ancient Greece) in 595 BC. for the first time used a gnomon (a vertical rod, it is believed that his student Anaximander created it) - it allowed not only to be a sundial, but also to determine the moments of the equinox, solstice, length of the year, latitude of observation, etc.
2). Already Hipparchus (180-125, Ancient Greece) used an astrolabe, which allowed him to measure the parallax of the Moon in 129 BC, establish the length of the year at 365.25 days, determine the procession and compile it in 130 BC. star catalog for 1008 stars, etc.
There was an astronomical staff, an astrolabon (the first type of theodolite), a quadrant, etc. Observations are carried out in specialized institutions - , arose at the first stage of the development of astronomy before NE. But real astronomical research began with the invention telescope in 1609

Telescope - increases the angle of view from which celestial bodies are visible ( resolution ), and collects many times more light than the observer's eye ( penetrating force ). Therefore, through a telescope you can examine the surfaces of the celestial bodies closest to the Earth, invisible to the naked eye, and see many faint stars. It all depends on the diameter of its lens.Types of telescopes: And radio(Demonstration of a telescope, poster "Telescopes", diagrams). Telescopes: from history
= optical

1. Optical telescopes ()

	Refractor(refracto-refract) - the refraction of light in the lens is used (refractive). “Spotting scope” made in Holland [H. Lippershey]. According to the approximate description, it was made in 1609 by Galileo Galilei and first sent it to the sky in November 1609, and in January 1610 he discovered 4 satellites of Jupiter. The world's largest refractor was made by Alvan Clark (an optician from the USA) 102 cm (40 inches) and installed in 1897 at the Hyères Observatory (near Chicago). He also made a 30-inch one and installed it in 1885 at the Pulkovo Observatory (destroyed during the Second World War).
	Reflector(reflecto-reflect) - a concave mirror is used to focus the rays. In 1667, the first reflecting telescope was invented by I. Newton (1643-1727, England), the mirror diameter was 2.5 cm at 41 X increase. In those days, mirrors were made of metal alloys and quickly became dull. The world's largest telescope. W. Keck installed a mirror with a diameter of 10 m in 1996 (the first of two, but the mirror is not monolithic, but consists of 36 hexagonal mirrors) at the Mount Kea Observatory (California, USA). In 1995, the first of four telescopes (mirror diameter 8 m) was introduced (ESO Observatory, Chile). Before this, the largest was in the USSR, the diameter of the mirror was 6 m, installed in the Stavropol Territory (Mount Pastukhov, h = 2070 m) in the Special Astrophysical Observatory of the USSR Academy of Sciences (monolithic mirror 42 tons, 600 tons telescope, you can see stars 24 m).
	Mirror-lens. B.V. SCHMIDT(1879-1935, Estonia) built in 1930 (Schmidt camera) with a lens diameter of 44 cm. Large aperture, coma-free and large field of view, placing a corrective glass plate in front of a spherical mirror. In 1941 D.D. Maksutov(USSR) made a meniscus, advantageous with a short pipe. Used by amateur astronomers. In 1995, the first telescope with an 8-m mirror (out of 4) with a base of 100 m was put into operation for an optical interferometer (ATACAMA desert, Chile; ESO). In 1996, the first telescope with a diameter of 10 m (out of two with a base of 85 m) named after. W. Keck introduced at the Mount Kea Observatory (California, Hawaii, USA) amateur telescopes

• direct observations
• photograph (astrograph)
• photoelectric - sensor, energy fluctuation, radiation
• spectral - provide information about temperature, chemical composition, magnetic fields, movements of celestial bodies.

1. Documentation is the ability to record ongoing phenomena and processes and retain the information received for a long time.
2. Immediacy is the ability to register short-term events.
3. Panoramic - the ability to capture several objects at the same time.
4. Integrity is the ability to accumulate light from weak sources.
5. Detail - the ability to see the details of an object in an image.

• Through a telescope we see as much as possible: ( resolution) α= 14 "/D or α= 206265·λ/D[Where λ is the wavelength of light, and D- diameter of the telescope lens] .
• The amount of light collected by the lens is called aperture ratio. Aperture E=~S (or D 2) of the lens. E=(D/d xp ) 2 , Where d xp - the diameter of the human pupil under normal conditions is 5mm (maximum in the dark 8mm).
• Increase telescope = Focal length of the lens/Focal length of the eyepiece. W=F/f=β/α.

Celestial bodies produce radiation: light, infrared, ultraviolet, radio waves, x-rays, gamma radiation. Since the atmosphere interferes with the penetration of rays to the ground with λ< λ света (ультрафиолетовые, рентгеновские, γ - излучения), то последнее время на орбиту Земли выводятся телескопы и целые орбитальные обсерватории : (т.е развиваются внеатмосферные наблюдения).

l. Fixing the material .
Questions:

1. What astronomical information did you study in courses in other subjects? (natural history, physics, history, etc.)
2. What is the specificity of astronomy compared to other natural sciences?
3. What types of celestial bodies do you know?
4. Planets. How many, as they say, order of arrangement, largest, etc.
5. What is the importance of astronomy in the national economy today?

Values ​​in the national economy:
- Orientation by stars to determine the sides of the horizon
- Navigation (navigation, aviation, astronautics) - the art of finding a way by the stars
- Exploration of the Universe to understand the past and predict the future
- Cosmonautics:
- Exploration of the Earth in order to preserve its unique nature
- Obtaining materials that are impossible to obtain in terrestrial conditions
- Weather forecast and disaster prediction
- Rescue of ships in distress
- Research of other planets to predict the development of the Earth
Result:

1. What new did you learn? What is astronomy, the purpose of a telescope and its types. Features of astronomy, etc.
2. It is necessary to show the use of the CD "Red Shift 5.1", the Observer's Calendar, an example of an astronomical journal (electronic, for example, Nebosvod). Show on the Internet, Astrotop, portal: Astronomy V Wikipedia, - using which you can obtain information on an issue of interest or find it.
3. Ratings.

Homework: Introduction, §1; questions and tasks for self-control (page 11), No. 6 and 7 draw up diagrams, preferably in class; pp. 29-30 (p. 1-6) - main thoughts.
When studying the material about astronomical instruments in detail, you can ask students questions and tasks:
1. Determine the main characteristics of G. Galileo’s telescope.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Galilean refractor optical design compared to the Kepler refractor optical design?
3. Determine the main characteristics of the BTA. How many times more powerful is BTA than MSR?
4. What are the advantages of telescopes installed on board spacecraft?
5. What conditions must be satisfied by the site for the construction of an astronomical observatory?

The lesson was prepared by members of the “Internet Technologies” circle in 2002: Prytkov Denis (10th grade) And Disenova Anna (9th grade). Changed 09/01/2007

1. The need to keep track of time (calendar). (Ancient Egypt - relationship with astronomical phenomena noticed)
2. Finding your way by the stars, especially for sailors (the first sailing ships appeared 3 thousand years BC)
3. Curiosity is to understand current phenomena and put them to your service.
4. Caring about your destiny, which gave birth to astrology.

Astronomy is one of the most ancient sciences, the origins of which date back to the Stone Age (VI-III millennium BC). Astronomy studies the movement, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems. Man has always been interested in the question of how the world around us works and what place he occupies in it. Most peoples, at the dawn of civilization, had special cosmological myths that tell how out of the original chaos space (order) gradually emerges, everything that surrounds a person appears: sky and earth, mountains, seas and rivers, plants and animals, as well as the man himself.

Over the course of thousands of years, there was a gradual accumulation of information about the phenomena that occurred in the sky. It turned out that periodic changes in earthly nature are accompanied by changes in the appearance of the starry sky and the apparent movement of the Sun. It was necessary to calculate the onset of a certain time of year in order to carry out certain agricultural work on time: sowing, watering, harvesting.

But this could only be done using a calendar compiled from many years of observations of the position and movement of the Sun and Moon. Thus, the need for regular observations of celestial bodies was determined by the practical needs of counting time. The strict periodicity inherent in the movement of celestial bodies underlies the basic units of time that are still used today - day, month, year. Simple contemplation of occurring phenomena and their naive interpretation were gradually replaced by attempts to scientifically explain the causes of the observed phenomena. When the rapid development of philosophy as a science of nature began in Ancient Greece (6th century BC), astronomical knowledge became an integral part of human culture.

Astronomy is the only science that received its patron muse - Urania. Since ancient times, the development of astronomy and mathematics has been closely linked. You know that translated from Greek the name of one of the branches of mathematics - geometry - means “land surveying”. The first measurements of the radius of the globe were carried out in the 3rd century. BC e. based on astronomical observations of the height of the Sun at noon. The unusual, but now common, division of the circle into 360° has an astronomical origin: it arose when it was believed that the length of the year was 360 days, and the Sun, in its movement around the Earth, takes one step every day - a degree.

Astronomical observations have long allowed people to navigate unfamiliar terrain and the sea. Development of astronomical methods for determining coordinates in the XV-XVII centuries. was largely due to the development of navigation and the search for new trade routes. Drawing up geographical maps and clarifying the shape and size of the Earth for a long time became one of the main problems solved by practical astronomy. The art of finding a way by observing celestial bodies, called navigation, is now used not only in navigation and aviation, but also in astronautics. Astronomical observations of the movement of celestial bodies and the need to calculate their location in advance played an important role in the development of not only mathematics, but also a very important branch of physics for human practical activity - mechanics. Having grown out of what was once a single science of nature - philosophy - astronomy, mathematics and physics have never lost their close connection with each other.

The interconnection of these sciences is directly reflected in the activities of many scientists. It is no coincidence, for example, that Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton are famous for their work in both physics and astronomy. In addition, Newton is one of the creators of differential and integral calculus. Formulated by him at the end of the 17th century. the law of universal gravitation opened up the possibility of using these mathematical methods to study the motion of planets and other bodies of the solar system. Constant improvement of calculation methods throughout the 18th century. brought this part of astronomy - celestial mechanics - to the forefront among other sciences of that era. The question of the position of the Earth in the Universe, whether it is stationary or moving around the Sun, in the 16th-17th centuries. has become important both for astronomy and for understanding the world.

The heliocentric teaching of Nicolaus Copernicus was not only an important step in solving this scientific problem, but also contributed to a change in the style of scientific thinking, opening a new path to understanding the phenomena occurring. Many times in the history of the development of science, individual thinkers tried to limit the possibilities of knowing the Universe. Perhaps the last such attempt happened shortly before the discovery of spectral analysis. The “sentence” was harsh: “We imagine the possibility of determining their (celestial bodies) shapes, distances, sizes and movements, but we will never, by any means, be able to study their chemical composition...” (O. Comte). The discovery of spectral analysis and its application in astronomy marked the beginning of the widespread use of physics in studying the nature of celestial bodies and led to the emergence of a new branch of the science of the Universe - astrophysics.

In turn, the unusualness from the “terrestrial” point of view of the conditions existing on the Sun, stars and in outer space contributed to the development of physical theories that describe the state of matter in conditions that are difficult to create on Earth. Moreover, in the 20th century, especially in its second half, the achievements of astronomy again, as in the times of Copernicus, led to serious changes in the scientific picture of the world, to the formation of ideas about the evolution of the Universe. It turned out that the Universe in which we live today was completely different several billion years ago - there were no galaxies, no stars, no planets in it.

In order to explain the processes that occurred at the initial stage of its development, the entire arsenal of modern theoretical physics was needed, including the theory of relativity, atomic physics, quantum physics and elementary particle physics. The development of rocket technology allowed humanity to enter outer space. On the one hand, this significantly expanded the possibilities of studying all objects located beyond the Earth and led to a new upsurge in the development of celestial mechanics, which successfully calculates the orbits of automatic and manned spacecraft for various purposes.

On the other hand, remote sensing methods, which came from astrophysics, are now widely used in studying our planet from artificial satellites and orbital stations. The results of studies of the bodies of the Solar System allow us to better understand global, including evolutionary, processes occurring on Earth. Having entered the space era of its existence and preparing for flights to other planets, humanity has no right to forget about the Earth and must fully realize the need to preserve its unique nature.